Buckeye Dairy News: VOLUME 26: ISSUE 6
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Dairy Dollars: Feed Prices, Nutrient Costs, and Milk Income
Andie Majewski, Graduate Teaching Associate and Dr. Kirby Krogstad, Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University
Feed is the largest cost of production on dairy farms. Because of this, it is critical to know the regional economic value of feeds and their predicted change in prices. Additionally, the costs of feedstuffs directly impact the producers feed nutrient prices and income over feed cost.
Figure 1. Actual and predicted cost of feedstuffs with 75% confidence interval (CI) of 21 feed commodities fed on Ohio Dairy Farms (November 18, 2024). Feedstuffs that are priced above the upper prediction price limit are overpriced (red bars). Feedstuffs that fall within the upper and lower limits of the predicted prices are breakeven feeds (gray bars). Feedstuffs that are priced below the lower prediction price limit are considered a bargain (green bars).
Economic Value of Feeds
Figure 1 displays the results for the 21 reported commodities for Ohio. These results were produced by SESAMETM for the central Ohio region on November 18, 2024. In simple terms, Figure 1 represents the bargain feedstuffs (green), the overpriced feedstuffs (red), and the breakeven feedstuffs (gray). In November, corn-based feeds were generally a bargain, while other byproducts, such as canola meal and blood meal, were not. Remember, these prices and estimates are from a point in time and that their economic classification may change. While it is important to consider the costs of feedstuffs when formulating a ration, the prices are not the only thing that should be considered. Some of the “bargain” priced commodities may have a place in a dairy cattle ration; however, it is important to understand the investment opportunity that may arise by using “overpriced” feedstuffs.
The appraisal set (Table 1) predicts the prices for the commodities that did not have a current local price. These commodity prices were predicted by SESAMETM and represent the commodity prices at one specific point in time and are therefore subject to change. These values may be used as a benchmark if you’re considering purchasing these ingredients for your dairy farm.
Table 1. Estimated Feedstuffs Prices Not Reported for Ohio, November 18, 2024.1
Feedstuffs
Estimated price (75% CI)
Alfalfa hay – 32% NDF, 24% CP, 190 RFV, $/ton
212 (200 - 224)
Alfalfa hay – 36% NDF, 22% CP, 170 RFV, $/ton
215 (202 - 227)
Alfalfa hay – 44% NDF, 18% CP,130 RFV, $/ton
210 (194 - 225)
Alfalfa hay – 48% NDF, 16% CP, 110 RFV, $/ton
208 (190 - 226)
Bakery byproduct meal, $/ton
126 (106 - 146)
Beet sugar pulp, dried, $/ton
161 (147 - 175)
Citrus pulp dried, $/ton
113 (99 - 129)
Fish menhaden meal, mech., $/ton
497 (478 - 515)
Molasses, sugarcane, $/ton
70 (52 - 88)
Tallow, $/ton
187 (114 - 26)
1CI= confidence Interval, NDF = neutral detergent fiber, CP = crude protein, and RFV = relative feed value.
Feed Nutrient Prices
The cost net energy for lactation (NEL) decreased about 56% from our previous report in September (Table 2). Previously, the NEL had progressively increased for the past 6 months of 2024. The cost of metabolizable protein (MP) increased by 8.6%, and the cost of physically effective fiber (e-NDF) increased by about 4.5%.
Table 2. Prices of Nutrients for Ohio Dairy Farms, November 18, 2024, Compared to September 24, 2024.
Nutrient Name
November
EstimateSeptember
EstimatePrice Change
NEL - 3x , $/Mcal
0.0340
~
0.0602
~
Metabolizable Protein, $/lb
0.5463
**
0.5031
**
e-NDF, $/lb
0.1518
**
0.1453
**
ne-NDF, $/lb
-0.0049
-0.0453
- A blank means that the nutrient unit cost is likely equal to zero.
- ~ Means that the nutrient unit cost may be close to zero.
- * Means that the nutrient unit cost is unlikely to be equal to zero.
- ** Means that the nutrient unit cost is most likely not equal to zero.Milk and Milk Component Prices
In the month of November, the ending Class III milk price was $22.85 /cwt. November’s milk fat and protein prices were $3.09 and $3.32/lb, respectively. Fat decreased about $0.47/lb from September, while protein increased from its prior price of $2.18/lb in September. The Class III milk price is predicted to increase slightly in the next month to $23.09/cwt.
The profitability of milk production with the nutrient costs displayed in Table 2 is estimated using the Cow-Jones Index. The prediction formula uses a 1500 lb cow producing milk with 4.09% fat and 3.22% protein. This month, the income over nutrient cost (IONC) for cows milking 85 and 70 lb/day is about $18.61 and $18.17/cwt, respectively. Both estimates are expected to be profitable, despite not including factors such as replacement and cull cows in the herd.
Table 3. Prices of milk and milk components, sourced from the Federal Marketing Order 33, for Ohio dairy farms, November 18, 2024, compared to September 24, 2024.
Milk/ Component
November
PricesSeptember
PricesPrice Change
Milk fat, $/lb
3.09
3.56
Milk protein, $/lb
3.32
2.18
Class III Milk1, $/cwt
22.85
23.42
1Class III milk is used for hard cheese.
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If Cows Make Their Own B-vitamins, Should We Worry About Supplementing Them? – Part II
Dr. Kirby Krogstad, Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University
Introduction
In part 1, we introduced the fundamentals of B-vitamin nutrition for dairy cows. Ruminants have a unique advantage when it comes to B-vitamins because the microbes in their rumen provide them with their own personal source of B-vitamins. When we consider that microbes supply dairy cattle with B-vitamins, it’s worth asking the question of whether supplementation of additional B-vitamins is needed, or beneficial, for dairy cows.
How to Supplement B-vitamins?
The rumen degradation of B-vitamins is different for each of the B-vitamins (Table 1). Previous research in beef and dairy cattle demonstrate that nearly all the riboflavin and niacin are degraded in the rumen before they reach the intestine. Folic acid is also extensively degraded in the rumen. Thiamin and cobalamin had intermediate rumen degradation, while biotin and pyridoxine had the least apparent rumen degradation.
Table 1. Apparent ruminal degradation (%) of B-vitamins.
B-vitamin Santschi et al. (2005) Thiamin 67.8 Riboflavin 99.3 Niacin 98.5 Pyridoxine 41.0 Biotin 45.2 Folic Acid 97.0 Cobalamin 62.9 Since most of the B-vitamins are extensively degraded in the rumen, they usually require rumen protection technology to deliver them to the small intestine in adequate quantities for intestinal absorption and use by the animal. There are many commercial sources of rumen protected B-vitamins for cattle (side note: if you’re considering rumen-protected B-vitamins, make sure that the rumen protection technology is effective). These rumen-protected supplements are often sold as B-vitamin blends, but some individual B-vitamin supplements are marketed as well.
The research on supplementing B-vitamins to dairy cattle is blurry and full of nuance. Some nutrients have been more thoroughly investigated than others, some B-vitamins have been provided by injection while some others have been fed through the bunk as a supplement, and some B-vitamins have been consistently effective while others have not.
What Does the Research Say?
Cobalamin and Folic Acid
In a 2017 experiment, injections of folic acid, cobalamin, or both were given to cows weekly from 3 weeks prior to calving until 7 weeks after calving. They did not observe any changes in milk yield or component yields due to treatment (Duplessis et al., 2017). Interestingly, this same research group observed that folic acid and cobalamin injections during this window around calving reduced days to first breeding (Duplessis et al., 2014). Other experiments have also observed improved fertility and reductions in culling when providing B-vitamins to dairy cattle through a rumen-protected supplement (Juchem et al., 2012). In this experiment, they did not observe changes in milk production from the B-vitamin blend supplement.
In general, cobalamin and folic acid have neutral results on milk production with possible health or fertility benefits for dairy cattle.
Biotin
Research has indicated that increasing biotin in the diet increases milk yield during lactation. Fortunately, there are enough data investigating the supplementation of biotin to dairy cattle that a meta-analysis was published on the topic. They summarized data from 11 experiments that included 238 cows (Chen et al., 2011). Their analysis concluded that 20 mg/day of biotin increased milk yield by 1.7 kg/day (3.7 lb/day) without any effect on milk component concentrations which resulted in greater milk component yields.
Niacin
Niacin, or vitamin B3, has very intriguing effects that could be beneficial for dairy cow health. Supplementing rumen-protected niacin reduces body fat mobilization after calving and has reduced ketones after calving. Recent research in dairy cattle has also shown that rumen-protected niacin is anti-inflammatory which may improve animal health during times of stress (Krogstad et al., 2024). In a recent abstract at the American Dairy Science Association meeting, the researchers suggest that rumen-protected niacin supplementation may increase milk yield throughout lactation as well, but it is the only experiment to monitor cows for a whole lactation when supplemented niacin during the transition period. Overall, the results for niacin are encouraging but require greater scrutiny to confirm the increased milk yield that was observed as a result of rumen-protected niacin supplementation
Bottomline on B-vitamins?
Supplementing B-vitamins to cows, in most cases, requires that they be rumen protected because they are extensively degraded by rumen microbes. The results of research from supplementing B-vitamins to dairy cattle depends on which B-vitamin was investigated. Biotin supplementation increases milk yield from dairy cattle, while supplementing folic acid and cobalamin has neutral effects on milk production. In some cases, providing folic acid and cobalamin improved fertility and reduced culling of dairy cows. Supplementing rumen protected niacin has increased milk yield in one instance and has demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects that require closer scrutiny. For your operation, look at the data, pencil out the costs, and calculate the benefits to determine which B-vitamin supplements may work best in your herd!
References
Chen, B., C. Wang, Y. M. Wang, and J. X. Liu. 2011. Effect of biotin on milk performance of dairy cattle: A meta-analysis. J. Dairy Sci. 94(7):3537-3546. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2010-3764
Duplessis, M., C. L. Girard, D. E. Santschi, J. P. Laforest, J. Durocher, and D. Pellerin. 2014. Effects of folic acid and vitamin B12 supplementation on culling rate, diseases, and reproduction in commercial dairy herds. J. Dairy Sci. 97(4):2346-2354. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2013-7369
Duplessis, M., H. Lapierre, D. Pellerin, J. P. Laforest, and C. L. Girard. 2017. Effects of intramuscular injections of folic acid, vitamin B12, or both, on lactational performance and energy status of multiparous dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 100(5):4051-4064. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2016-12381
Juchem, S. O., P. H. Robinson, and E. Evans. 2012. A fat based rumen protection technology post-ruminally delivers a B vitamin complex to impact performance of multiparous Holstein cows. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 174(1):68-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2012.03.004
Krogstad, K. C., J. F. Fehn, L. K. Mamedova, M. P. Bernard, and B. J. Bradford. 2024. Effects of rumen-protected niacin on inflammatory response to repeated intramammary lipopolysaccharide challenges. J. Dairy Sci. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2024-24974
Santschi, D. E., R. Berthiaume, J. J. Matte, A. F. Mustafa, and C. L. Girard. 2005. Fate of supplementary B-vitamins in the gastrointestinal tract of dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 88(6):2043-2054. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)72881-2
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Using Antibiotics on Your Dairy Farm? How to Monitor for Improved Practices
Rafael Portillo-Gonzalez, Samantha Locke, and Greg Habing, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University
Why is it Important to Monitor Antimicrobial Use on Your Farm?
Antimicrobial resistance occurs when bacteria evolve to survive antimicrobial treatments, making infections harder to treat. Although this process happens naturally, it is accelerated by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials. On dairy farms, bacterial infections such as mastitis, metritis, diarrhea, respiratory diseases, and lameness significantly affect animal health. Improper management of these infections can lead to the development of resistant bacteria, which will make treatment of previously minor infections in cattle difficult or impossible. Additionally, some resistant bacteria can spread to humans, causing serious health issues. Responsible use of antimicrobials minimizes the risk of resistant infections, protects animal welfare, and improves treatment outcomes. Monitoring antibiotic use at the farm level is key to maintaining responsible use and complying with regulations. It also optimizes farm efficiency by reducing the risk of antimicrobial residues in food products. By tracking antibiotic use, farmers can make data-driven decisions to improve animal health, reduce the need for antimicrobials over time and contribute to the global fight against antibiotic resistance.
How Do We Measure and Monitor On-farm Antimicrobial Use?
Antimicrobial use (AMU) is measured by determining how frequently animals on a farm receive antimicrobial treatments over a specific period (Figure 1). One common method to assess antibiotic use is by calculating the Animal Daily Dose (ADD). This metric standardizes the definition of a “dose” for each antibiotic and shows the number of doses of antibiotic used for a standard population size over time. For instance, 10 ADD per 1000 cow-days means that a farm uses, on average, 10 doses of antibiotics every day for every 1000 cows on the farm. This standardized metric helps identify patterns in antibiotic use within farms or allows apples-to-apples comparisons across farms, leading to better decision-making regarding responsible and effective use.
Figure 1. Record keeping is very important in management of antimicrobial use.
Monitoring antibiotic use alongside disease metrics, such as metritis or mastitis incidences, provides a comprehensive view of antibiotic use and treatment practices at the farm level. Disease incidence indicates how frequently health issues occur, while antibiotic use metrics reveal how antimicrobials are used in response. Together, these measures help identify patterns such as overuse or under-treatment, enabling more informed management decisions.
How Much Variation in Antibiotic Use is There Between Farms?
The variation in antibiotic use between farms can be substantial, influenced by how each farm manages animal health, identifies disease, and designs treatment protocols. A recent study published by our research team aimed to describe and quantify on-farm antibiotic use in large dairy farms in Ohio and California. The study found substantial differences in AMU among enrolled dairy farms. The overall mean treatment ADD was 11.8, with values ranging from 1.7 to 71.6 ADD/1,000 cow-days (Portillo-Gonzalez et al., 2023; Figure 2). This considerable variation highlights opportunities to reduce antimicrobial use on some farms, promoting more responsible practices. (Link to the study: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38056568/)
Figure 2. Mean Animal Daily Dose (ADD)/1,000 cow-days by farm for the whole study period (180 days). The overall mean ADD for all the farms (n=18) was included as a reference.
Why does the Amount of Antibiotic Use Vary so Much Between Farms?
Variation in the amount of on-farm antibiotic use can be influenced by disease incidence, disease case definitions, and the design of on-farm treatment protocols. Farms with weaker disease prevention practices, such as inadequate vaccination, biosecurity, or barn hygiene, naturally tend to rely more heavily on antimicrobials. Also, the disease case definition plays an important role. Some farms may be very selective with antimicrobials by using alternatives (fluids, anti-inflammatories) or by identifying only the cases most likely to benefit from treatment. Lastly, the dose and duration specified in the veterinary treatment protocol significantly impact total antimicrobial use on the farm. For example, some farms in our study treated mastitis for a longer duration than was necessary. Changing the protocol to a shorter, yet equally effective, duration resulted in a marked reduction in antibiotic use.
How Can Farms Monitor Their Own AMU?
Farms can monitor their AMU by keeping appropriate records of each antimicrobial treatment,
including antimicrobial name, dosage, route of administration, withholding period, the number of animals treated, and the reason for use. Herd management software can help organize treatment records, which can then be used more easily for analysis. Farms can work with their veterinarian to calculate ADD, monitor sales records, and monitor inventory. Analyzing these records alongside other performance indicators can help identify areas where enhanced disease prevention measures or adjustments to treatment protocols may be needed.
What Can Producers Do to Reduce Their AMU?
Dairy farmers can reduce AMU by focusing on four key strategies. The first and most obvious strategy is to reduce disease incidence and therefore reduce the need for antimicrobials. This can be achieved through appropriate nutrition, vaccination, improved biosecurity, and early disease detection, which helps prevent outbreaks and reduces the need for antimicrobial treatments. Second, farms should work closely with their veterinarian to regularly review the adherence to treatment protocols. The protocol should include clear directions on the disease case definition so that antimicrobials are only administered to cows likely to benefit from the treatment. Accurate disease identification requires substantial training and experience, and some infections may resolve or worsen without antimicrobials. Treatment alternatives, such as fluids and anti-inflammatories, can further lower antimicrobial dependence. Third, producers should also review treatment protocols with their veterinarian to ensure that the dose and duration of treatments are appropriate. Adjusting these factors can prevent overuse while maintaining treatment efficacy. Lastly, producers might consider selective dry cow therapy, which targets antimicrobials only for cows at higher risk of infection or those with existing infections, such as high somatic cell counts (SCC). On some farms, this method has successfully reduced AMU while maintaining udder health.
Reductions in unnecessary antibiotic use can improve animal health, enhance farm sustainability, and play a vital role in combating antibiotic resistance, which is critical for public health and the future efficacy of antimicrobials.
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FDA Letter Asks Veterinarians to Discontinue Use of Unapproved Aspirin Products in Lactating Dairy Cattle
Dr. Gustavo M. Schuenemann, Professor, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University
In October 11, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently published a “Dear Veterinarian Letter” informing veterinarians and their clients to discontinue use of unapproved aspirin products to treat pyrexia and pain in lactating dairy cattle. A total of 616 confirmed dairy herds in 15 US states were reported positive for highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) as of November 22, 2024. Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is being used on some dairy farms to treat cattle infected with HPAI. In the past, FDA considered aspirin products to be of low regulatory concern. However, because the increased use of unapproved aspirin and the availability in the US market of labeled products for treatment of pyrexia (fever) in cattle, the FDA has shifted this stance to state such use as illegal.
The letter states that “The U.S. Food and Drug Administration understands that veterinarians and dairy farmers may be treating lactating dairy cattle for pyrexia and pain with aspirin and wants to clarify that there are no FDA-approved aspirin products for use in cattle”. Furthermore, the letter indicates that “There are FDA-approved products for controlling pyrexia and pain in lactating dairy cattle that are safe, effective, and have established milk and meat withdrawal periods.”
Regarding the use of aspirin products available in the US market, the letter states that “Although other human aspirin products are marketed under an over-the-counter monograph, that monograph is not an approval and, therefore, these products cannot be used in an extralabel manner. Given the impracticality of dosing cattle with a sufficient amount of the approved human product, the FDA understands that veterinarians and dairy farmers may instead be using unapproved aspirin products that are not legally marketed. The extra label use of unapproved drug products in food-producing species is prohibited.” On November 1, 2024, the Food Animal Residue Database (FARAD) indicated that aspirin products are not FDA-approved in any veterinary species.
What species are impacted by the FDA letter? Although the letter was issued to veterinarians and their dairy clients, the use of aspirin is also impacting swine and potentially other species.
What should I do if aspirin was accidentally administered to food animals? Please contact and work with your veterinarian. FARAD will work with veterinarians to determine case-by-case withdrawal interval recommendations (milk and meat) following accidental aspirin administration to food animals.
What drug is approved to treat pyrexia and pain in cattle? Banamine transdermal (Flunixin) is the only FDA-approved drug for beef and dairy cattle for control of control of pyrexia (fever) associated with bovine respiratory disease and acute bovine mastitis, and the control of pain associated with foot rot. Additionally, there is one FDA-approved human aspirin product (Vazalore) that is currently marketed and veterinarians might use in food producing species under specific conditions, according to the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA). Please contact your veterinarian for more information.
What does this federal regulatory change mean to you and your livestock operation as well as veterinary practices?
This means that livestock operations would need to establish a veterinary-client-patient relationship (VCPR) to treat animals experiencing pyrexia and pain. Consult your veterinarian for more information. Although there currently are over-the-counter unapproved FDA aspirin products available in the US market, retail suppliers who were able to sell these drugs/products in the past may no longer sell them.
What is a veterinarian-client-patient-relationship?
A veterinarian-client-patient-relationship (VCPR) is defined by the American Veterinary Medical Association as the basis for interaction among veterinarians, their clients, and their patients and is critical to the health of your animal(s). The practical explanation is that it is a formal relationship that you have with a veterinarian who serves as your primary contact for all veterinary services and is familiar with you, your livestock/animals, and your farm operation. This veterinarian is referred to as your Veterinarian of Record (VoR), and both the VoR and the client should sign a form to document this relationship.
Helpful Resources:
- Dear Veterinarian Letter regarding use of aspirin products in lactating dairy cattle. News release. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. October 11, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/product-safety-information/dear-veterinarian-letter-regarding-use-aspirin-products-lactating-dairy-cattle.
- FDA warns against use of unapproved aspirin in lactating dairy cattle. News release. American Veterinary Medical Association. October 23, 2024; updated on October 29, 2024. https://www.avma.org/news/fda-warns-against-use-unapproved-aspirin-lactating-dairy-cattle?utm_source=delivra&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=todays-headlines-news.
- Aspirin in dairy cattle: Challenges and consideration. Food Animal Residue Database (FARAD). http://www.farad.org/publications/FARAD_Aspirin_DairyCattle_10-24.pdf. November 1, 2024.
- Download a VCPR template developed by the Ohio Veterinary Medical Association Drug Use Task Force at: https://extension.vet.osu.edu/general-food-fiber-animal-resources.
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Free Flu Vaccine for Dairy Farmers and Farm Workers
Jason Hartschuh, Assistant Professor, OSU Extension Field Specialist, Dairy Management and Precision Livestock, Ohio State University Extension
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) has allocated more than 100,000 doses of seasonal influenza vaccine to 12 states that have had dairy herds test positive for H5N1 bird flu. This is part of a CDC initiative announced this summer to provide several supplemental free seasonal influenza vaccines to farm workers across states affected by H5N1 to prevent the spread of seasonal flu in these communities and safeguard public health. The 12 states include: California, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, South Dakota, and Texas. All states with dairy herds that have tested positive for H5N1 bird flu were invited to apply to receive additional doses of seasonal influenza vaccine – allocated specifically for farm workers – beyond what the states were already planning to provide. States will conduct screening to ensure that these doses are going to farm workers and will track the number of doses given monthly by age. While a seasonal flu vaccine does not protect against H5N1 bird flu, expanding access to seasonal flu vaccines among farm workers can prevent severe illness and help reduce the strain of the flu season on rural healthcare systems. Reducing the prevalence of seasonal flu also can help public health agencies better detect cases of H5N1 bird flu, should they occur. And fewer people infected with seasonal flu means fewer opportunities for the very rare possibility of co-infection with both a human seasonal virus and an avian virus. For more information on receiving these free flu vaccines, see the inserted document listed below or contact your local health department.
Click on image below for pdf version with links.
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Starter Success for Dairy Calves
Elizabeth Plunkett, Graduate Research Associate, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University
At birth, a calf’s rumen is not fully functional, and milk bypasses the rumen via the esophageal groove to be digested in the abomasum. As the calf grows, a healthy, active rumen becomes more and more essential for its long-term success. The transition from a nonfunctional to a fully functional rumen is heavily diet-dependent. Offering starter feed early on encourages rumen fermentation, which produces butyrate, a vital compound for developing the rumen’s lining and papillae. The earlier you provide access to a clean, dry starter, the sooner you can supply the rumen with all the essential compounds it needs for a smooth weaning. So, what steps can you take to boost starter intake and give your calves the best start possible?
1. Water intake drives starter intake.
Water is often overlooked as an essential nutrient but can be a key driver for starter success. Restricted access to water can lead to reduced weight gain and starter intake in calves (Kertz et al., 1984). Providing ad libitum access to clean, fresh water as early as the first week of life is a simple, yet powerful, tool that can benefit your calves.
2. Start with a shallow bowl.
While calves are known to be curious, many shy away from sticking their head into a deep, unfamiliar bucket. Providing a handful of starter into a shallow bowl creates an invitation for calves to explore something new without added stress. In most cases, you can find dog bowls that will fit in the same holder and act as the feed bucket until intake increases. Offering small amounts at the start also helps reduce waste, as calves typically don’t begin eating significant amounts of starter until three weeks of age.
3. Refresh starter daily for young calves.
Young calves who are new to starter should receive a fresh supply daily (or at least weekly). Stale starter can leave a bitter taste in a calf’s mouth, and you want their first experience consuming starter to be enjoyable so they will be a repeat customer. Starter dishes can also quickly become a breeding ground for mold and bacteria, creating unwanted and unnecessary challenges. Starter refusals that are clean and dry from young calves can be fed to older calves, helping to reduce waste and make the most of your feed.
4. Gradual weaning.
Gradual weaning is a proven strategy for increasing starter intake and improving overall weight gain (Sweeney et al., 2010). A key consideration when implementing gradual weaning is that milk intake should not be reduced until calves demonstrate consistent consumption of starter. Once calves begin showing a substantial interest in starter, a reduction in milk can be initiated to stimulate further starter consumption. This approach encourages higher starter intake prior to complete milk removal, optimizing both growth performance and feed efficiency. Consider talking with your nutritionist to develop a gradual weaning program that best suits your goals.
5. Group housing calves.
Extensive research has demonstrated the positive effects of group housing during the weaning period (Costa et al., 2016). One of the benefits of this approach is that calves can learn feeding behaviors from each other, leading to improved feed intake and growth rates. Post-weaning, group housed calves tend to have greater competitive success at the feed bunk compared to calves housed individually. While group housing calves may offer many benefits, it should be implemented carefully. Prior to grouping calves, it is important to consider factors such as size differences and health status of the calves. Disease transmission is a potential concern, as group housing can increase the risk of health issues among calves. With proper backgrounding and sanitation protocols in place, group housing calves can be an effective strategy to enhance starter intake.
6. Limit bulky, low-quality forages.
Feeding hay during the preweaning period is a complex topic and should be approached with extreme caution. Forages are low in energy and provide unnecessary bulk in the rumen at a time when we need energy-dense feed for calves (i.e., starter). Introducing forages too early may discourage calves from consuming starter, lowering energy intake. Forages do little for rumen development, as their primary role is to provide abrasiveness to prevent keratin build-up on papillae, aiding in greater absorption of nutrients. You can achieve the same effect by feeding a texturized starter which is more nutrient-dense.
Weaning does not have to be a stressful event for you and your calves. By focusing on ensuring that calves are eating enough starter, the weaning process will be smoother and reduce stress for everyone. It is important to base weaning on starter intake rather than days of age. Calves should be consistently eating 2 to 3 lb/day of starter for at least three consecutive days before you begin weaning. A successful weaning sets the stage for calves to grow into healthy, productive cows that will perform in the parlor.
Sources:
- Costa, J.H.C., M.A.G. von Keyserlingk, and D.M. Weary. 2016. Invited review: Effects of group housing of dairy calves on behavior, cognition, performance, and health. J. Dairy Sci. 99:2453–2467. doi:10.3168/jds.2015-10144.
- Kertz, A.F., L.F. Reutzel, and J.H. Mahoney. 1984. Ad libitum water intake by neonatal calves and its relationship to calf starter intake, weight gain, feces score, and season. J. Dairy Sci. 67:2964–2969. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(84)81660-4.
- Sweeney, B.C., J. Rushen, D.M. Weary, and A.M. De Passillé. 2010. Duration of weaning, starter intake, and weight gain of dairy calves fed large amounts of milk. J. Dairy Sci. 93:148–152. doi:10.3168/jds.2009-2427.
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Practical Tips to Improve Calf Welfare in Cold Weather
Dr. Grazyne Tresoldi, Assistant Professor, Animal Welfare, Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University
As winter approaches, low ambient temperatures and high humidity pose serious challenges for all calves, with very young ones being especially at risk. When temperatures drop below 50°F, calves must expend extra energy to maintain their body temperature. This increased energy demand can quietly lead to slower growth, weakened immunity, and higher susceptibility to disease. If calves are unable to cope with the cold, they may exhibit signs of stress, such as shivering, reluctance to stand, and frostbite on extremities. In severe cases, cold stress can be fatal.
Here are research-backed and practical strategies to mitigate cold stress and protect your calves:
Optimize Housing
- Provide windproof, draft-free shelters, such as well-ventilated hutches or barns. Remember, draft-free doesn’t mean airtight - ventilation is critical to reduce humidity and airborne pathogens that can worsen respiratory issues.
- Use deep, dry straw bedding to insulate calves and allow for "nesting," where calves can burrow for warmth. Replace bedding regularly to prevent moisture buildup, which compromises insulation.
- House calves in pairs or small groups to enable huddling (Figure 1), which improves thermal comfort through shared body heat.
- Consider overhead heat lamps, especially for newborn calves, to provide targeted warmth in colder conditions.
Adjust Feeding Strategies
- Increase milk or milk replacer allowances during cold weather to meet higher energy demands for thermoregulation and support growth.
- Consider ad libitum feeding; calves will self-regulate their consumption based on energy needs. In colder conditions, their intake may exceed the average of 15 to 20% of body weight daily. For group-housed calves, automated feeders can help ensure consistent access to sufficient milk or replacer.
- Incorporate liquid fat into diets as an option but consult a nutritionist to ensure the crude protein to metabolizable energy ratio is balanced.
Provide Layers
- Use insulated calf jackets to retain body heat and conserve energy for growth and immunity (Figure 2). Ensure jackets are clean, dry, and properly fitted to avoid restricting movement or creating pressure points.
Engage with Experts
- Collaborate with veterinarians, nutritionists, and educators to design a cold stress management plan tailored to your farm’s unique needs. Routine assessments of housing, nutrition, and calf health are essential to prevent issues before they arise.
By implementing these strategies, Ohio dairy farmers can help their calves stay healthy and thrive throughout the winter, fostering robust growth, development, and improved welfare within their herds.
Sources:
1. Roland et al., 2016. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2015-9901.
2. Van Os et al., 2024. https://doi.org/10.3168/jdsc.2023-0443.
Figure 1. Pair-housed calves with access to two hutches often prefer to huddle together in one hutch during winter, conserving body heat. Photo credit: Kimberly Reuscher.
Figure 2. Calf jackets are an effective way to reduce heat loss during cold weather, helping calves conserve energy. They are also machine washable for easy maintenance. Photo credit: FutureCow. -
Winter Calf Management
Jason Hartschuh, Assistant Professor, OSU Extension Field Specialist, Dairy Management and Precision Livestock, Ohio State University Extension
I was slightly more ready for cold weather this year than the last couple. I had the fans taken down so that my calf barn doors would slide shut when the first cold night came around, but still, I was not ready for the dusting of snow I received last week. I was scrambling to make sure my calves would be comfortable. The thermoneutral zone for calves is 50 to 68⁰F, meaning when temperatures in their environment are below the lower critical temperature of 50⁰F, they need extra energy to stay warm. This can be a challenge since 50⁰F at night often has highs of 70⁰F during the day. Usually, calves deep bedded with straw manage this variation by nesting with their legs covered at least to the middle of the back leg when lying down. The next step is adding calf jackets to help keep calves warm. Studies show that calf jackets improve gain by 0.22 lb/day compared to those without jackets. Adding jackets when it is warm out may cause the calves to sweat under the jacket and get chills at night. If you have a calf born prematurely, putting the jacket on at night and taking it off during the day is extra work but may help calves that cannot regulate their body temperature very well. The calf jacket material should be breathable with a water-resistant shell. It is recommended that producers start using jackets once the pen temperature averages less than 50⁰F for newborn calves up to 3 weeks old. Once calves are over 3 weeks of age, they are comfortable until average pen temperatures are below 40⁰F. The lower critical temperature is higher as the calf’s rumen develops, creating heat to keep them warm. One important management step with calf jackets is to keep the jackets dry, which means calves should be dry before putting jackets on. If the calf is still damp, you will need to change jackets after a few hours. In order to put jackets on dry calves, you should have clean towels to dry the calves. One thing that works very well when calving barn temperatures fall below freezing, or even 40⁰ F, is to have towels in a cabinet in the calving pen to help the cow to quickly dry the calf.
When calves are first born and they start shivering, they are burning precious energy. For each 1-degree drop in temperature below the lower critical temperature, a calf needs a 1% increase in energy to meet maintenance requirements. There are many different calf-feeding programs. With all programs to increase growth, more milk solids have to be fed but solids concentration should not exceed 16%. The most common way to increase energy intake is to feed either more per feeding or add a third feeding. While 8 hours apart is ideal for three feedings, the most important part is to make timing consistent. Feed the same amount at each feeding, even if that means adding a lunch feeding between your normal feeding times.
Another beneficial practice is to provide warm water at 63 to 82⁰F to calves within 30 minutes of finishing their milk. Water intake improves starter intake by 31%. However, it lowers their rumen temperature, requiring energy to warm the water and even more energy to maintain weight and allow for growth.
Pay close attention to winter ventilation, keeping barns or hutches warm is not the goal. Keeping the air fresh to minimize disease while not allowing a draft on the calves is the goal. There are many ways to do this. With hutches, it usually means having either permanent winter windbreaks or temporary windbreaks, like straw bales. Winter winds seem to change and bring cold nasty weather out of every direction, even the south. In calf barns, pens are a microenvironment affected by ventilation and pen design. Studies have found that solid sides slow disease spread but are only beneficial if the front, back, and top of the pens are open; otherwise, they create a high disease microenvironment. When disease and ventilation are challenging your calves, a properly designed positive pressure tube providing ventilation at a rate of 15 cubic feet/calf/minute can improve calf health without creating a chill. Having written ventilation protocols for your calf barn and hutches along with thermometers placed both inside and outside your calf-raising area can help everyone remember to make the necessary ventilation adjustments as day and nighttime temperatures fluctuate.